はEssential
wa — pronounced 'wa', not 'ha'
Marks what the sentence is about — 'as for X'.
- •Introduces the topic
- •Contrast between two things
- •Often replaces が or を when the word is the topic
watashi wa gakusei desu
As for me, I am a student.
nihon wa kirei desu
Japan is beautiful.
kōhī wa suki desu ga, ocha wa suki ja nai
I like coffee, but not tea.
Marks the grammatical subject, or new/emphasised information.
- •Marks who/what performs the action
- •New information the listener didn't know
- •Used with 好き, 上手, ある/いる
- •Means 'but' when joining clauses
neko ga imasu
There is a cat.
dare ga kimashita ka
Who came?
sushi ga suki desu
I like sushi.
をEssential
o — pronounced 'o'
Marks the thing the verb acts on.
- •Direct object of a verb
- •Path travelled through with motion verbs
- •Point of departure (でる, おりる)
pan o tabemasu
I eat bread.
kōen o arukimasu
I walk through the park.
ie o demasu
I leave the house.
Points at a destination, a point in time, or where something exists.
- •Destination (いきます)
- •Specific time (7時に)
- •Location with ある/いる
- •Indirect object (to someone)
- •Purpose with ~にいく
gakkō ni ikimasu
I go to school.
shichi-ji ni okimasu
I get up at seven.
heya ni imasu
I am in the room.
Where an action happens, or the tool/method used.
- •Location of an action
- •Means of transport or tool
- •Material something is made of
- •Cause or reason
toshokan de benkyō shimasu
I study at the library.
densha de ikimasu
I go by train.
hashi de tabemasu
I eat with chopsticks.
へEssential
e — pronounced 'e', not 'he'
Direction of movement — softer than に.
- •Direction toward a place
- •Common on letters: 〜へ (to ...)
tōkyō e ikimasu
I'm heading to Tokyo.
uchi e kaerimasu
I'm going back home.
Connects two nouns — 'X's Y' or 'Y of X'.
- •Possession
- •Describing a noun with another noun
- •Nominalising a verb phrase
- •Replacing an obvious noun
nihongo no sensei
Japanese teacher
akai no ga hoshii
I want the red one.
Joins nouns exhaustively, marks a companion, or quotes.
- •A and B (complete list)
- •Together with someone
- •Quoting with いう / おもう
- •Conditional 'when/if'
pan to tamago o kaimasu
I'll buy bread and eggs.
tomodachi to ikimasu
I go with a friend.
tanaka to iimasu
My name is Tanaka.
Replaces は/が/を to mean 'also, too, either'.
- •Also / too
- •Not ... either (with negatives)
- •Emphasising a large amount
watashi mo ikimasu
I'll go too.
nani mo tabemasen
I won't eat anything.
Starting point in space or time, or a reason.
- •From a place or time
- •Because (reason before the result)
- •Made from (source)
ku-ji kara hajimarimasu
It starts from nine.
samui kara, uchi ni imasu
It's cold, so I'll stay home.
The end point in space or time.
- •Until a time
- •As far as a place
- •からまで pairs for a range
go-ji made hatarakimasu
I work until five.
eki made arukimasu
I'll walk as far as the station.
Lists examples — 'things like A and B'.
- •Non-exhaustive list
- •Often ends with など
ringo ya mikan o kaimashita
I bought apples, oranges and so on.
Turns a sentence into a question, or means 'or'.
- •Question marker at sentence end
- •A or B
- •Uncertainty inside a sentence
gakusei desu ka
Are you a student?
kōhī ka ocha
coffee or tea
Seeks agreement — 'right?', 'isn't it?'.
- •Softening a statement
- •Checking the listener agrees
ii tenki desu ne
Nice weather, isn't it?
Tells the listener something they don't know.
- •Asserting new information
- •Gentle warning or reminder
abunai desu yo
That's dangerous, you know.
Polite, objective reason — softer than から.
- •Explaining a reason politely
- •Making excuses
atama ga itai node, kaerimasu
I have a headache, so I'll go home.
Casual 'but / although'.
- •Contrast between clauses
- •Softening a request
takai kedo, oishii
It's expensive, but tasty.
Limits to just that thing.
- •Only / just
- •Neutral in tone
mizu dake kudasai
Just water, please.
'Nothing but' — always with a negative verb.
- •Expresses insufficiency
- •Verb must be negative
hyaku-en shika arimasen
I only have 100 yen.
Doing/having only one thing, often with a complaint.
- •Only, constantly
- •Just did something (〜たばかり)
gēmu bakari shite imasu
He does nothing but play games.
'Even X' or a casual suggestion.
- •Even (extreme example)
- •…or something (suggestion)
kōhī demo nomimasen ka
Shall we have coffee or something?
Used for comparison — 'more than X'.
- •A は B より 〜 (A is more ~ than B)
densha wa basu yori hayai desu
Trains are faster than buses.
'To the extent of' — degree or comparison with negatives.
- •Degree of something
- •Not as ~ as (with negative)
kyō wa kinō hodo samukunai
Today isn't as cold as yesterday.
Strongly highlights the word before it.
- •'It is precisely X'
- •In set phrases like こちらこそ
kochira koso arigatō
No, thank YOU.
Casual ね, or a blunt 'don't' after a dictionary verb.
- •Casual sentence-ending feeling
- •Strong prohibition: いくな (don't go)
Approximate amount or time.
- •Roughly this much
- •At least this much
san-jikan gurai kakarimasu
It takes about three hours.
Closes an example list — 'and so on'.
- •After や lists
- •Softening an example
sushi ya tenpura nado ga suki desu
I like sushi, tempura and so on.
Distributes an amount evenly.
- •Each person gets X
- •X at a time
hitotsu zutsu totte kudasai
Please take one each.